U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. (2019). FoodData Central: Spinach, raw and cooked. Very low calorie; rich in folate, vitamin K1, lutein, potassium, magnesium; iron is non-heme and bound by oxalate. fdc.nal.usda.gov
National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. (2021). Vitamin K — Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. Fact sheet (updated March 29, 2021; Wayback snapshot 19 September 2026): free phylloquinone is about 80% absorbed, but absorption from food is much lower - the body absorbs only 4% to 17% as much from spinach as from a tablet; Table 2: natto, 3 ounces, 850 mcg (as MK-7); egg, hard boiled, 1 large, 4 mcg (as MK-4) (fact sheet). ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminK-HealthProfessional
Siervo, M., Lara, J., Ogbonmwan, I., & Mathers, J. C. (2013). Inorganic nitrate and beetroot juice supplementation reduces blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Journal of Nutrition, 143(6), 818-826. Dietary nitrate modestly lowered blood pressure (effect strongest from beetroot/leafy-green nitrate). 10.3945/jn.112.170233
EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain. (2008). Nitrate in vegetables — scientific opinion. EFSA Journal, 6(6), 689. Leafy vegetables (including spinach) are major dietary nitrate sources; dietary nitrate from vegetables is part of the nitrate-nitrite-nitric-oxide pathway. 10.2903/j.efsa.2008.689
National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. (2024). Iron — Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. Fact sheet (updated September 4, 2025; Wayback snapshot 21 September 2026): RDAs 8 mg/day for men and for women 51+, 18 mg women 19-50, 27 mg pregnancy; UL 45 mg/day from age 14; bioavailability about 14%-18% from mixed diets with meat, seafood and vitamin C and 5%-12% from vegetarian diets; serum ferritin below 30 mcg/L suggests iron deficiency and below 10 mcg/L IDA, but inflammation can raise ferritin; supplemental iron of 45 mg/day or more may cause nausea and constipation; people with hereditary hemochromatosis are at risk of iron overload (fact sheet). Heme vs nonheme: heme iron (lean meat and seafood are the richest sources) has higher bioavailability than nonheme iron, and other dietary components affect it less; calcium might reduce the bioavailability of both forms; heme iron is about 10%-15% of total iron intake in western populations. The sheet gives no separate heme and nonheme absorption percentages (fact sheet, Wayback 2026 snapshot). ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Iron-HealthProfessional
Hunt, J. R. (2003). Bioavailability of iron, zinc, and other trace minerals from vegetarian diets. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 78(3 Suppl), 633S-639S. Heme iron is absorbed far more efficiently than non-heme iron and is less affected by dietary inhibitors. The abstract gives NO absorption percentages and does not itself state the heme vs non-heme comparison above: it says iron and zinc absorption is lower from vegetarian than non-vegetarian diets, vegetarians have lower iron stores, adverse effects have not been shown with varied vegetarian diets in developed countries, and routine iron supplementation has no demonstrated benefit. The heme 15-35% / non-heme 2-20% figures sometimes attached to this record are not in it (abstract, PMID 12936958). 10.1093/ajcn/78.3.633S
Chai, W., & Liebman, M. (2005). Effect of different cooking methods on vegetable oxalate content. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53(8), 3027-3030. Boiling markedly reduces soluble oxalate in high-oxalate vegetables such as spinach. 10.1021/jf048128d