Choe, E., & Min, D. B. (2007). Chemistry of deep-fat frying oils. Journal of Food Science, 72(5), R77-R86. Narrative review of frying chemistry: deep-fat frying changes oil by hydrolysis, oxidation and polymerization; tocopherols, essential amino acids and fatty acids in foods are degraded. High frying temperature, number of fryings, free-fatty-acid content, polyvalent metals and unsaturated fatty acids decrease the oil's oxidative stability; antioxidants slow frying-oil oxidation but lose effectiveness at high temperature; sesame-oil lignans are effective antioxidants in frying. Chemistry only - no human health outcomes. 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2007.00352.x
Guallar-Castillón, P., Rodríguez-Artalejo, F., Lopez-Garcia, E., León-Muñoz, L. M., Amiano, P., Ardanaz, E., et al. (2012). Consumption of fried foods and risk of coronary heart disease: Spanish cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition study. BMJ, 344, e363. 40,757 adults aged 29-69, median follow-up 11 years, 606 CHD events. Highest vs lowest quarter of fried-food intake: CHD HR 1.08 (95% CI 0.82-1.43, P trend 0.74); all-cause mortality HR 0.93 (0.77-1.14). No difference between olive-oil and sunflower-oil frying. Conclusion is limited to a Mediterranean setting where olive or sunflower oil is used; the abstract does not address reused oil. 10.1136/bmj.e363
Straif, K., Baan, R., Grosse, Y., Secretan, B., El Ghissassi, F., & Cogliano, V. (2006). Carcinogenicity of household solid fuel combustion and of high-temperature frying. The Lancet Oncology, 7(12), 977-978. Summary of the IARC Volume 95 working-group evaluation: emissions from high-temperature frying Group 2A. 10.1016/S1470-2045(06)70969-X
Chinese Nutrition Society. (2022). Dietary Guidelines for Chinese Residents (2022). Core recommendation three: eat vegetables at every meal, with at least 300 g of fresh vegetables per day of which dark-coloured vegetables should make up half; eat fruit every day, 200-350 g of fresh fruit per day, and fruit juice does not substitute for whole fruit. The accompanying Balanced Diet Pagoda gives a vegetable range of 300-500 g/day at the 1600-2400 kcal energy levels. Core recommendation five (less salt and oil, limit sugar and alcohol), verified verbatim 2026-08-21: adults should take no more than 5 g of salt per day; cooking oil 25-30 g per day; added sugar no more than 50 g per day and preferably under 25 g; and for adults who drink, no more than 15 g of alcohol per day. Other core figures on the same official page: at least 300 g of fresh vegetables daily with dark-coloured vegetables making up half, 200-350 g of fresh fruit daily with juice not substituting for whole fruit, the equivalent of over 300 mL of liquid milk, 200-300 g of cereals, and 120-200 g of animal-protein foods. The same official page also says: on average 12 kinds of food a day and 25 or more a week. It carries no saturated-fat percentage-of-energy line (read 2026-09-24). www.sport.gov.cn/n20001280/n20001265/n20066978/c24291669/content.html