Food · Animal Foods · 乳制品
Milk
酪蛋白 80% + 乳清 20% 构成完整蛋白 · 钙含量冠军且配合维 D 高效入骨 · 乳糖不耐受是酶的问题不是奶的问题 · 脱脂未必比全脂更好
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Story path
- 1What is milk · a complex biological fluidWhat is milk · a complex biological fluid
- 2Macros · all three, none extremeMacros · all three, none extreme
- 3Fat · whole vs skim, less clear-cut than you thinkFat · whole vs skim, less clear-cut than you think
- 4Rich in · calcium champion + B2 + B12 + vitamin DRich in · calcium champion + B2 + B12 + vitamin D
- 5What it lacks · what milk can't coverWhat it lacks · what milk can't cover
- 6Key knowledge · the mechanism of lactose intoleranceKey knowledge · the mechanism of lactose intolerance
- 7How to choose · whole vs skim · plant milks comparedHow to choose · whole vs skim · plant milks compared
- 8Debunking · three common mythsDebunking · three common myths
Chapter 1
What is milk · a complex biological fluid
What is milk · a complex biological fluid
Milk is not simply water with some protein dissolved in it. It is a highly structured biological fluid that simultaneously delivers protein, fat, lactose (carbohydrate), minerals, and vitamins — and these components are packaged in ways that enhance each other's absorption.
Whole cow's milk per 100 g provides roughly 3.2 g protein, 3.5 g fat, 4.8 g carbohydrate (mainly lactose), and about 60-65 kcal. Skim milk removes the fat while keeping protein and calcium largely intact, but fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) go with the fat, which is why most skim milks are fortified.
The most important upfront note: different milk forms differ meaningfully — whole, semi-skimmed, skim, lactose-reduced, ultra-high-temperature (UHT), and pasteurized vary in fat, vitamin retention, and lactose. Later scenes unpack the key differences.
Whole cow's milk per 100 g provides roughly 3.2 g protein, 3.5 g fat, 4.8 g carbohydrate (mainly lactose), and about 60-65 kcal. Skim milk removes the fat while keeping protein and calcium largely intact, but fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) go with the fat, which is why most skim milks are fortified.
The most important upfront note: different milk forms differ meaningfully — whole, semi-skimmed, skim, lactose-reduced, ultra-high-temperature (UHT), and pasteurized vary in fat, vitamin retention, and lactose. Later scenes unpack the key differences.
Chapter 2
Macros · all three, none extreme
Macros · all three, none extreme
Milk is one of the few natural foods that delivers all three macronutrients at once, and all in moderate, balanced amounts.
Protein: roughly 3.2-3.4 g per 100 g — not as dense as chicken breast, but a 250 ml glass delivers 8 g of complete protein easily. Of this, 80% is casein and 20% is whey. Casein curdles in the stomach and digests slowly, providing a sustained release; whey digests quickly and is rich in leucine — the raw material of the whey protein shakes used post-workout (dive: protein).
Fat: whole milk ~3.5 g per 100 g, mostly saturated but with some monounsaturated. Skim milk is near zero.
Carbohydrate: ~4.8 g per 100 g, mostly lactose. Digesting lactose requires the enzyme lactase — the root of 'lactose intolerance', covered in special-knowledge.
Calories: whole milk ~60-65 kcal/100 g, skim ~34-36 kcal. A 250 ml glass is roughly 150 kcal for whole milk vs 85 kcal for skim — a real difference, but not enormous.
Protein: roughly 3.2-3.4 g per 100 g — not as dense as chicken breast, but a 250 ml glass delivers 8 g of complete protein easily. Of this, 80% is casein and 20% is whey. Casein curdles in the stomach and digests slowly, providing a sustained release; whey digests quickly and is rich in leucine — the raw material of the whey protein shakes used post-workout (dive: protein).
Fat: whole milk ~3.5 g per 100 g, mostly saturated but with some monounsaturated. Skim milk is near zero.
Carbohydrate: ~4.8 g per 100 g, mostly lactose. Digesting lactose requires the enzyme lactase — the root of 'lactose intolerance', covered in special-knowledge.
Calories: whole milk ~60-65 kcal/100 g, skim ~34-36 kcal. A 250 ml glass is roughly 150 kcal for whole milk vs 85 kcal for skim — a real difference, but not enormous.
Chapter 3
Fat · whole vs skim, less clear-cut than you think
Fat · whole vs skim, less clear-cut than you think
For a long time, mainstream nutrition guidance recommended switching to skim milk to reduce saturated fat. Recent cohort research has begun to complicate this tidy conclusion.
Whole milk fat is roughly 60-70% saturated, 25-30% monounsaturated, and a small fraction polyunsaturated. That sounds high in saturated fat, but the saturated fatty acid composition in milk is complex — it includes butyric acid, medium-chain fats, and others whose metabolism differs from long-chain palmitic acid.
A 2020 JACC state-of-the-art review pooling the evidence argued that whole-fat dairy intake is largely neutral or even slightly protective for cardiovascular risk, with large cohorts (e.g. PURE) pointing the same way — at odds with the simplified 'eat less saturated fat' prediction, though this remains debated. One explanation is the 'dairy matrix effect': calcium, phosphorus, and protein in milk are physically packaged with fat in a specific structure, and digesting that matrix has different metabolic outcomes than eating the equivalent fat separately (dive: fat-types).
That does not mean 'drink unlimited whole milk'. For those already high in fat intake or with familial hypercholesterolaemia, choosing low-fat remains a reasonable default. Skim milk retains calcium and protein fully — fat-soluble vitamins are reduced, so check the label for fortification.
Whole milk fat is roughly 60-70% saturated, 25-30% monounsaturated, and a small fraction polyunsaturated. That sounds high in saturated fat, but the saturated fatty acid composition in milk is complex — it includes butyric acid, medium-chain fats, and others whose metabolism differs from long-chain palmitic acid.
A 2020 JACC state-of-the-art review pooling the evidence argued that whole-fat dairy intake is largely neutral or even slightly protective for cardiovascular risk, with large cohorts (e.g. PURE) pointing the same way — at odds with the simplified 'eat less saturated fat' prediction, though this remains debated. One explanation is the 'dairy matrix effect': calcium, phosphorus, and protein in milk are physically packaged with fat in a specific structure, and digesting that matrix has different metabolic outcomes than eating the equivalent fat separately (dive: fat-types).
That does not mean 'drink unlimited whole milk'. For those already high in fat intake or with familial hypercholesterolaemia, choosing low-fat remains a reasonable default. Skim milk retains calcium and protein fully — fat-soluble vitamins are reduced, so check the label for fortification.
Chapter 4
Rich in · calcium champion + B2 + B12 + vitamin D
Rich in · calcium champion + B2 + B12 + vitamin D
Milk's most notable micronutrient highlights, roughly in order of significance:
Calcium: roughly 120 mg per 100 g, or ~300 mg per 250 ml glass — about a third of the adult daily recommendation. This is milk's most famous nutrient. More importantly, its absorption rate is 30-35%, meaningfully higher than many plant sources (spinach oxalate binds calcium so nearly none is absorbed; almond calcium absorbs at ~20%). Dive to calcium for how bone uses it.
Vitamin D: natural milk is not particularly rich in vitamin D, but across much of the world milk is routinely fortified, making a glass a significant daily contributor. Vitamin D simultaneously promotes intestinal calcium absorption, making the two synergistic (dive: vitamin-d).
Riboflavin (B2): ~0.17-0.18 mg per 100 g; a single glass delivers 15-20% of the adult RDA. B2 is the precursor to FAD and FMN, coenzymes at the gateway of cellular energy metabolism (dive: riboflavin-b2).
Vitamin B12: ~0.45 μg per 100 g; 250 ml covers roughly 45% of the adult RDA. Critically for diet: B12 exists almost exclusively in animal foods, making milk a key source for lacto-ovo vegetarians (dive: vitamin-b12).
Phosphorus: works with calcium to form hydroxyapatite, giving bones their hardness.
Calcium: roughly 120 mg per 100 g, or ~300 mg per 250 ml glass — about a third of the adult daily recommendation. This is milk's most famous nutrient. More importantly, its absorption rate is 30-35%, meaningfully higher than many plant sources (spinach oxalate binds calcium so nearly none is absorbed; almond calcium absorbs at ~20%). Dive to calcium for how bone uses it.
Vitamin D: natural milk is not particularly rich in vitamin D, but across much of the world milk is routinely fortified, making a glass a significant daily contributor. Vitamin D simultaneously promotes intestinal calcium absorption, making the two synergistic (dive: vitamin-d).
Riboflavin (B2): ~0.17-0.18 mg per 100 g; a single glass delivers 15-20% of the adult RDA. B2 is the precursor to FAD and FMN, coenzymes at the gateway of cellular energy metabolism (dive: riboflavin-b2).
Vitamin B12: ~0.45 μg per 100 g; 250 ml covers roughly 45% of the adult RDA. Critically for diet: B12 exists almost exclusively in animal foods, making milk a key source for lacto-ovo vegetarians (dive: vitamin-b12).
Phosphorus: works with calcium to form hydroxyapatite, giving bones their hardness.
机制 · 同样是钙, 为什么从牛奶里过得去、从菠菜里过不去
吸收率说的是: 你喝进去的钙里, 真正跨过肠壁进到血里的是哪一部分. 剩下的并不是被身体拒绝了, 而是压根没能变成可以被搬运的形式, 原样随粪便走掉.所以要理解这几个数字之间的差距, 得先记住钙被吸收的前提: 它必须是溶在肠液里的自由钙离子. 一旦钙和别的东西结成不溶的盐, 它就成了肠腔里的一粒沉淀; 肠壁上负责搬运的蛋白只认离子, 认不出沉淀.
麻烦在于, 小肠越往下走, 环境越不利于钙保持溶解. 食糜离开胃时还带着酸, 一路往下会被逐步中和, 而钙在偏碱的环境里天生容易析出、抱团结块. 也就是说, 钙全程都在跟结块赛跑: 谁能在抵达吸收工位之前还保持溶解, 谁才还有机会被搬进去.
牛奶带着两个帮手上路.
第一个来自蛋白. 酪蛋白先在胃里凝固, 再被消化酶剪成一段段小肽, 其中一类小肽身上带着磷酸基团 —— 这就是酪蛋白磷酸肽 (casein phosphopeptide, 常缩写成 CPP). 这些带磷酸的肽段像一只只小夹子, 把钙离子夹住不放, 让它在偏碱的小肠下段仍然维持在可溶态. 钙于是被护送着走完了最容易结块的那一段路.
第二个来自糖. 牛奶里的乳糖在肠腔里被慢慢拆开, 它的存在让钙更容易顺着肠上皮细胞之间的缝隙渗过去 —— 这条从细胞缝里挤的路不需要维生素 D 开门, 是主动转运之外的一条补充通道.
换句话说, 牛奶里的蛋白和糖不是碰巧和钙装在同一杯里, 它们一路都在替钙做事.
菠菜输在哪里. 菠菜富含草酸 (oxalate). 草酸和钙在肠腔里一照面就结成草酸钙, 一种几乎不溶的盐. 结成沉淀的钙不再是自由离子, 搬运蛋白认不出它, 整块随粪便排掉. 所以菠菜的含钙量并不假, 假的是那个数字暗示的你能拿到多少 —— 食物里含多少, 和你身体里进多少, 中间隔着一整笔溶解度的账.
杏仁输的是另一种. 坚果里的钙一部分被植酸结住, 一部分锁在坚硬的细胞结构里, 得先嚼碎、再被消化液拆开才释放得出来 —— 不是被沉淀掉的, 是根本没被放出来.
溶解只是上半场. 钙保住了离子形态、抵达小肠上皮的门口之后, 还得跨过那层细胞才算进了血, 而那条主动通道的运力由维生素 D 说了算. 这也是为什么强化了维 D 的牛奶不是又多加了一样好东西, 而是把料和开门的人装进了同一杯里 (dive: vitamin-d).
链走通了, 下面几条你可以自己推:
拿菠菜的含钙量去比牛奶, 基本没有意义: 比的是进嘴的量, 决定结果的却是溶解那一关.脱脂奶的钙为什么不打折: 钙待在水相里、跟着酪蛋白走, 撇掉的是脂肪, 钙和酪蛋白都还在, 那两个帮手一个没少.酸奶和奶酪的钙为什么同样好吸收: 发酵改变的主要是乳糖, 酪蛋白仍在, 那把磷酸小夹子也就还在.
其余亮点 · B2、B12 与磷
核黄素 (Riboflavin, B2): 每 100 g 约 0.17-0.18 mg, 一杯就能提供成人 RDA 约 15-20%. B2 是 FAD/FMN 的前体, 站在细胞能量代谢的入口 (dive: riboflavin-b2).把入口这个说法讲具体一点: 你吃下去的糖和脂肪, 最后都要被拆成电子交给线粒体上的呼吸链, 才换得出能量货币. FAD 和 FMN 就是负责接过这些电子、再递给下一棒的两只夹子, 而它们的骨架正是核黄素. 核黄素不够, 递电子的手就不够用 —— 表现出来的往往不是某一个器官出问题, 而是处处都差一点力气.
维生素 B12: 每 100 g 约 0.45 μg, 一杯 250 ml 可提供成人 RDA 约 45%. 对纯素食者尤其重要的是: B12 几乎只存在于动物性食物, 牛奶是素食者 (奶蛋素) 的重要来源 (dive: vitamin-b12).
磷 (phosphorus): 与钙协同构成羟基磷灰石, 支撑骨骼硬度.
磷这一条和前一页那条链是接得上的: 钙进了血还只走到半路, 真正变成骨头, 是钙和磷一起在成骨细胞铺好的胶原网上结晶. 牛奶把钙和磷装在同一杯里, 等于把这一步要用的两样建材一次给齐.
Chapter 5
What it lacks · what milk can't cover
What it lacks · what milk can't cover
Milk is well-rounded, but it has clear gaps:
Dietary fiber = 0. Milk has no fiber and does not feed the gut microbiome. Its natural companions are whole grains, vegetables, and legumes.
Vitamin C is negligible. What little milk contains is further reduced by pasteurization and UHT. Pairing with vitamin-C-rich fruit bridges this gap and also promotes non-heme iron absorption from the rest of the meal (dive: iron).
Iron content is very low. Milk is a well-known low-iron food. Infants given large amounts of cow's milk too early — replacing breast milk or formula — face real iron-deficiency risk. Adults cannot rely on milk for iron (dive: iron).
A practical pairing: oats with milk is a classic high-efficiency breakfast. Oats add fiber and beta-glucan; milk adds protein, calcium, B2, B12; toss in berries for vitamin C and polyphenols — three components complementing each other for a micronutrient-dense meal.
One caveat: stacking high-dose calcium supplements on top of ample dairy is not always better. Very high calcium intake has been associated in some studies with kidney stone and prostate cancer risk (evidence remains debated). Calcium from food sources is generally not a concern.
Dietary fiber = 0. Milk has no fiber and does not feed the gut microbiome. Its natural companions are whole grains, vegetables, and legumes.
Vitamin C is negligible. What little milk contains is further reduced by pasteurization and UHT. Pairing with vitamin-C-rich fruit bridges this gap and also promotes non-heme iron absorption from the rest of the meal (dive: iron).
Iron content is very low. Milk is a well-known low-iron food. Infants given large amounts of cow's milk too early — replacing breast milk or formula — face real iron-deficiency risk. Adults cannot rely on milk for iron (dive: iron).
A practical pairing: oats with milk is a classic high-efficiency breakfast. Oats add fiber and beta-glucan; milk adds protein, calcium, B2, B12; toss in berries for vitamin C and polyphenols — three components complementing each other for a micronutrient-dense meal.
One caveat: stacking high-dose calcium supplements on top of ample dairy is not always better. Very high calcium intake has been associated in some studies with kidney stone and prostate cancer risk (evidence remains debated). Calcium from food sources is generally not a concern.
Chapter 6
Key knowledge · the mechanism of lactose intolerance
Key knowledge · the mechanism of lactose intolerance
Lactose intolerance is a problem of insufficient lactase enzyme — not a sign that milk itself is toxic.
The mechanism: lactose is a disaccharide of glucose and galactose. Normal digestion requires small-intestinal villus cells to secrete lactase, splitting lactose before absorption. When lactase is insufficient, lactose reaches the colon intact; gut bacteria ferment it, producing hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and short-chain fatty acids — the source of the bloating, cramps, and diarrhea.
Ethnic variation is the critical context. All mammals naturally downregulate lactase activity after weaning — humans included — but the rate of decline differs enormously between populations. Northern European and some Central Asian pastoral cultures have a 70-90% prevalence of a lactase persistence mutation (in the LCT gene region), maintaining enzyme activity into adulthood. East Asian, East and West African, and indigenous American populations have 70-90% rates of lactase decline after childhood. This is not an allergy, not a disease, but a product of evolutionary and agricultural history.
Practically, lactose intolerance thresholds vary widely. Many people tolerate small amounts, milk consumed with a meal rather than fasted, fermented forms (yogurt, aged cheese), or lactase-enzyme supplements. Lactose-reduced milk pre-treated with added lactase is another straightforward option.
This scene gives general information only and is not a substitute for evaluation by a doctor or clinical dietitian.
The mechanism: lactose is a disaccharide of glucose and galactose. Normal digestion requires small-intestinal villus cells to secrete lactase, splitting lactose before absorption. When lactase is insufficient, lactose reaches the colon intact; gut bacteria ferment it, producing hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and short-chain fatty acids — the source of the bloating, cramps, and diarrhea.
Ethnic variation is the critical context. All mammals naturally downregulate lactase activity after weaning — humans included — but the rate of decline differs enormously between populations. Northern European and some Central Asian pastoral cultures have a 70-90% prevalence of a lactase persistence mutation (in the LCT gene region), maintaining enzyme activity into adulthood. East Asian, East and West African, and indigenous American populations have 70-90% rates of lactase decline after childhood. This is not an allergy, not a disease, but a product of evolutionary and agricultural history.
Practically, lactose intolerance thresholds vary widely. Many people tolerate small amounts, milk consumed with a meal rather than fasted, fermented forms (yogurt, aged cheese), or lactase-enzyme supplements. Lactose-reduced milk pre-treated with added lactase is another straightforward option.
This scene gives general information only and is not a substitute for evaluation by a doctor or clinical dietitian.
Chapter 7
How to choose · whole vs skim · plant milks compared
How to choose · whole vs skim · plant milks compared
Whole vs skim: there is no universal 'better'. Whole milk retains fat-soluble vitamins and the potentially beneficial dairy matrix structure; skim is lower in calories while keeping protein and calcium, a reasonable default for those controlling fat intake. If you choose skim, check the label for vitamin D and A fortification.
UHT vs pasteurized: UHT is shelf-stable and convenient; pasteurization is gentler and marginally better for heat-sensitive nutrients. Differences in calcium and protein are minimal.
Plant milks deserve their own note. Soy milk is the closest match to cow's milk in protein (fortified ~3-4 g per 100 g); oat milk is higher in carbs and lower in protein; almond milk is very low in protein. Plant milks typically need added calcium and vitamin D to approach dairy nutrition — drinking plant milk does not automatically mean equivalent nutrition; always compare labels. For vegetarians needing B12, choosing a B12-fortified plant milk matters.
How to use: milk with whole-grain oats is a classic breakfast; adding milk to soups or sauces increases protein and calcium density; using milk instead of water with coffee or tea is an unremarkable but effective calcium boost.
Who should take care: infants under 1 year should not receive ordinary cow's milk as a main drink (iron and renal solute reasons); those with cow's milk protein allergy (distinct from lactose intolerance) should avoid it.
UHT vs pasteurized: UHT is shelf-stable and convenient; pasteurization is gentler and marginally better for heat-sensitive nutrients. Differences in calcium and protein are minimal.
Plant milks deserve their own note. Soy milk is the closest match to cow's milk in protein (fortified ~3-4 g per 100 g); oat milk is higher in carbs and lower in protein; almond milk is very low in protein. Plant milks typically need added calcium and vitamin D to approach dairy nutrition — drinking plant milk does not automatically mean equivalent nutrition; always compare labels. For vegetarians needing B12, choosing a B12-fortified plant milk matters.
How to use: milk with whole-grain oats is a classic breakfast; adding milk to soups or sauces increases protein and calcium density; using milk instead of water with coffee or tea is an unremarkable but effective calcium boost.
Who should take care: infants under 1 year should not receive ordinary cow's milk as a main drink (iron and renal solute reasons); those with cow's milk protein allergy (distinct from lactose intolerance) should avoid it.
Chapter 8
Debunking · three common myths
Debunking · three common myths
Myth one: 'Milk is inflammatory; adults shouldn't drink it.' This claim circulates widely but rests on thin evidence. No high-quality randomized controlled trial has shown that ordinary healthy adults drinking milk develop systemic inflammation. Some people's lactose-intolerance symptoms are misread as 'inflammatory reactions'. True cow's milk protein allergy exists but is not common. Generalizing individual symptoms into 'milk causes inflammation' is a category error.
Myth two: 'Skim milk is always healthier than whole milk.' The fat-quality scene addressed this. For most people, moderate whole-milk consumption is not more harmful for cardiovascular health than skim. The dairy matrix effect makes this question more nuanced than the saturated-fat narrative suggests. If you drink whole milk, there is no need for health-anxiety-driven switching to skim; choosing skim for calorie control is equally valid.
Myth three: 'Plant milks are nutritionally equivalent to cow's milk.' This needs heavy qualification. Only fortified soy milk approaches cow's milk across its main nutrients; oat milk and almond milk are far lower in protein and minerals. Plant milks are good alternatives, but you must choose fortified versions and compare labels — they are not nutritionally equivalent by default.
Myth two: 'Skim milk is always healthier than whole milk.' The fat-quality scene addressed this. For most people, moderate whole-milk consumption is not more harmful for cardiovascular health than skim. The dairy matrix effect makes this question more nuanced than the saturated-fat narrative suggests. If you drink whole milk, there is no need for health-anxiety-driven switching to skim; choosing skim for calorie control is equally valid.
Myth three: 'Plant milks are nutritionally equivalent to cow's milk.' This needs heavy qualification. Only fortified soy milk approaches cow's milk across its main nutrients; oat milk and almond milk are far lower in protein and minerals. Plant milks are good alternatives, but you must choose fortified versions and compare labels — they are not nutritionally equivalent by default.
References · 10
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. (2019). FoodData Central: Milk (whole 3.25%, reduced-fat, fat-free, with added vitamin D). ~3.2 g protein and ~120 mg calcium per 100 g; commonly fortified with vitamin D. fdc.nal.usda.gov
- Astrup, A., Magkos, F., Bier, D. M., et al. (2020). Saturated fats and health: a reassessment and proposal for food-based recommendations: JACC state-of-the-art review. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 76(7), 844-857. Argues saturated fat's health effect depends on the whole food matrix, with fermented dairy and cheese neutral-to-favorable for cardiovascular risk. 10.1016/j.jacc.2020.05.077
- Dehghan, M., Mente, A., Rangarajan, S., et al. (2018). Association of dairy intake with cardiovascular disease and mortality in 21 countries from five continents (PURE): a prospective cohort study. The Lancet, 392(10161), 2288-2297. Higher dairy intake, including whole-fat, tracked lower mortality and major cardiovascular events. 10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31812-9
- National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. (2024). Vitamin D — Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminD-HealthProfessional
- National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. (2024). Calcium — Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Calcium-HealthProfessional
- National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. (2024). Vitamin B12 — Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminB12-HealthProfessional
- National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. (2022). Riboflavin — Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Riboflavin-HealthProfessional
- National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. (2024). Iron — Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Iron-HealthProfessional
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK). (2018). Lactose Intolerance: Definition & Facts. U.S. National Institutes of Health. www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/lactose-intolerance
- Ingram, C. J. E., Mulcare, C. A., Itan, Y., Thomas, M. G., & Swallow, D. M. (2009). Lactose digestion and the evolutionary genetics of lactase persistence. Human Genetics, 124(6), 579-591. Adult lactase activity is governed by LCT-region variants, with large between-population differences. 10.1007/s00439-008-0593-6