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Astaxanthin
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In one pass Astaxanthin is the pigment that turns salmon flesh pink, and a flamingo's pink comes from the same family of pigments. Not this — Astaxanthin is a strong antioxidant + anti-aging — Its test-tube antioxidant score (ORAC) does not translate into outcomes in the body; clinical data on heart disease, lifespan or skin aging is thin.
Educational content, not medical advice — consult a clinician.
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Chapter 1
The pigment that turns salmon pink
Astaxanthin is the pigment that turns salmon flesh pink, and a flamingo's pink comes from the same family of pigments. Your body cannot make it; you only get it through the food chain: microalgae make it, small crustaceans such as krill eat the algae, and fish eat the krill.
It belongs to the carotenoids, like β-carotene and lutein, but the groups at its two ends are different, so it sits in the cell membrane in a different way: it spans the whole membrane. That is the biggest difference from its relatives, and the chapter on how it protects cell membranes explains it.
Food usually supplies only a fraction of a milligram, and supplement doses are about ten times higher. Its better-supported uses in people are narrow: as an aid against screen-related eye fatigue and alongside sun protection for the skin.
It belongs to the carotenoids, like β-carotene and lutein, but the groups at its two ends are different, so it sits in the cell membrane in a different way: it spans the whole membrane. That is the biggest difference from its relatives, and the chapter on how it protects cell membranes explains it.
Food usually supplies only a fraction of a milligram, and supplement doses are about ten times higher. Its better-supported uses in people are narrow: as an aid against screen-related eye fatigue and alongside sun protection for the skin.
Background · Where it comes from, how much food holds
The main industrial source is Haematococcus pluvialis, a freshwater microalga. Under strong light, low oxygen or a shortage of nitrogen, it dyes its whole body blood-red as a defense, and that pigment is astaxanthin. In the sea, krill and other zooplankton take in this kind of pigment from algae; salmon, trout and red trout eat the krill, and their flesh turns pink. Flamingos eat algae and small shrimp that contain carotenoids, and their feathers turn pink. Its chemical name is 3,3'-dihydroxy-β,β-carotene-4,4'-dione. It is in the same family as β-carotene, lycopene, lutein and zeaxanthin, but carries extra hydroxyl and ketone groups at both ends.Humans and most animals have no pathway to make it themselves, the exact opposite of vitamin D. A serving of about 150 g of wild salmon holds roughly 0.5–1 mg; farmed salmon about 0.1–0.5 mg, which comes from its feed; a typical Chinese diet provides close to 0 mg a day. Typical supplement doses are 4–12 mg a day, roughly 10–100 times what food provides.
In practice · Telling natural from synthetic
Two industrial sources, with a 10× price gap:1. Natural (extracted from the microalga H. pluvialis): almost every reputable supplement uses this one
Main producers: the US, India, Japan, Israel, and Yunnan in ChinaMostly the 3S,3'S stereoisomer, exactly the form found naturally in salmon and krillHigher price ($20–50 a month)Usually labeled natural or from Haematococcus pluvialis
2. Synthetic (made chemically from petrochemical feedstocks): mainly used in fish feed (for farmed salmon)
A mixture of stereoisomers (3R,3'R, 3R,3'S and 3S,3'S at 25%, 50% and 25%); some studies suggest its biological activity is lower than the natural form, with evidence mostly from test-tube and animal workSynthetic astaxanthin in human supplements is rare, and it is best avoided when you buy
Regulation: in the US, synthetic astaxanthin was approved mainly as a coloring agent for fish feed.
In practice:
When buying a supplement, check that the label says from Haematococcus pluvialis or natural.Avoid empty marketing phrases such as red-ocean astaxanthin or deep-sea high-purity; they do not replace a clear statement of natural source.Well-known suppliers of the natural raw material include Cyanotech (BioAstin), Algatech (AstaPure) and AstaReal; there are many consumer brands, so check whose natural raw material a product uses.In China, ¥150–400 for 60 capsules (4 mg each) is a reasonable price range; be wary of anything clearly cheaper or clearly more expensive.
Chapter 2
How it protects cell membranes
A single astaxanthin molecule sits across the cell membrane. The oily chain in the middle lies in the membrane's fatty layer, and each end carries a hydroxyl group and a ketone group that reach into the water on either side. So one molecule guards the fatty part and the watery part at the same time.
After it gives away an electron, it does not risk turning into a new free radical the way β-carotene can: the ketone groups at both ends spread the extra electron along the whole chain. This comes from chemistry and test-tube experiments; how large its antioxidant effect is inside the human body is a question for human trials. Why vitamin E and vitamin C each guard only one side, and why β-carotene turns harmful in a smoker's lungs, comes down to where each molecule sits and where it goes after giving up an electron.
After it gives away an electron, it does not risk turning into a new free radical the way β-carotene can: the ketone groups at both ends spread the extra electron along the whole chain. This comes from chemistry and test-tube experiments; how large its antioxidant effect is inside the human body is a question for human trials. Why vitamin E and vitamin C each guard only one side, and why β-carotene turns harmful in a smoker's lungs, comes down to where each molecule sits and where it goes after giving up an electron.
Mechanism · Why other antioxidants guard one side
The cell membrane is a sandwich: a layer of oil between two sheets of water. Free radicals, the molecules that grab electrons wherever they go, are found in both the oil and the water. Which layer an antioxidant can protect is basically decided by which layer it sits in itself. That is a matter of physical location, not of which one is stronger.Vitamin E (α-tocopherol): the whole molecule is buried in the membrane's oil layer, with only a tiny head poking out. It guards the easily oxidized fat chains inside the membrane, and whatever happens in the water is out of its reach.
Vitamin C (ascorbate): entirely water-loving, it spends its whole life in water and cannot enter the oil layer at all. It is often called vitamin E's partner because once vitamin E has been used up in the oil layer, vitamin C on the water side has to restore it at the boundary: two molecules, each guarding one side, completing a relay through a handoff.
β-carotene: its long middle chain is almost the same as astaxanthin's, but both ends are bare hydrocarbon with no polar head. So the whole molecule lies flat inside the oil layer, and it can only guard the oil.
Astaxanthin: polar at both ends and not in the middle, so the membrane pins it in a spanning position; it has no choice but to sit that way. Both ends are in water and the middle is in oil, so it protects the watery and the fatty parts at the same time.
Why that long chain can catch a free radical, and why it fears light and oxygen. Double and single bonds alternate along the chain, so the electrons do not belong to any single atom but are spread along the whole chain. After a free radical takes one electron, the leftover unpaired electron is spread out as well; no single atom is left especially unstable, so the whole molecule stays stable. The price is that anything a free radical can grab, oxygen and ultraviolet light can grab too. Astaxanthin in the bottle is being slowly oxidized the same way; the strict storage rules are not the manufacturer being theatrical but a consequence of that same chain.
Why β-carotene turns harmful. After catching a free radical it can spread the electron in the same way, but the molecule it becomes can still go on reacting with oxygen. In tissue with a high oxygen pressure (the lungs have one of the highest in the body), combined with a high concentration, it can pick up an oxygen, become a peroxyl radical and turn to attack the fat next to it. So the same molecule is a fire extinguisher at low oxygen and low concentration and a spark at high oxygen and high concentration, and a smoker's lungs meet both conditions at once. In two large trials in the 1990s, ATBC and CARET, β-carotene increased lung cancer in smokers, and this is the chemical explanation (see Multivitamin). The ketone groups at astaxanthin's two ends flatten its electron cloud further and also block this route to picking up oxygen; in test-tube experiments, even at 100× physiological concentrations, it was not seen to turn into a new free radical.
One step further: this also explains why the more antioxidants you take, the better is wrong. Any molecule that works by giving away an electron needs somewhere safe to end up afterward; if that place is not stable enough, a bigger dose is more dangerous, not less. When you judge whether an antioxidant supplement is worth taking, the first question is not how strong it is but what it turns into after it has been used.
Evidence · How it differs from lutein and zeaxanthin
Three compounds sold as eye carotenoids are often bundled together, but their mechanisms differ:Lutein and zeaxanthin:
They gather in the macula at the center of the retina and are the main components of macular pigment (measured as macular pigment optical density, MPOD).Main role: absorbing blue light (450–490 nm) and giving antioxidant protection to the light-sensing cells.In the AREDS2 randomized trial, adding lutein and zeaxanthin to the existing eye formula did not further lower the risk of progressing to advanced macular degeneration in the primary analysis. But because β-carotene may raise lung cancer in former smokers, lutein plus zeaxanthin was judged a suitable replacement for it, and so it went into the AREDS2 formula.Sources: spinach, kale, egg yolk, corn
Astaxanthin:
It is more widely distributed in the body (mostly from animal studies): some is in the retina, but little; more is in the ciliary body (the ring of muscle that focuses the eye), skin, brain and liver.Main role: easing eye fatigue and improving focusing and small-vessel blood flow, not directly adding to macular pigment.Nagaki 2002 and later randomized trials: in video display terminal (VDT) workers who look at screens for long hours, 6 mg a day for 4–6 weeks lessened subjective fatigue and shortened the time it took focusing to recover.Sources: salmon, krill, red seafood
How to tell which you need:
Family history of macular degeneration, eye care in older age: lutein plus zeaxanthin (the AREDS2 formula)Long hours at a screen, tired eyes: astaxanthin plus lutein and zeaxanthin (some trials tested exactly this combination)Dry eye: artificial tears are the foundation, and see an eye doctor first; in a large randomized trial fish oil did no better than placebo for dry eye, and eye-fatigue supplements have no meaningful evidence for it either.Cataract, glaucoma, optic-nerve disease: see an eye doctor; supplements are not treatment.
Astaxanthin makes your eyes better is a marketing simplification; its real place is an aid for eye fatigue and focusing, not a treatment for eye disease.
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Chapter 3
Evidence on eye strain and skin
Only two signals in people hold up reasonably well: screen-related eye fatigue, and help against sun-driven skin aging. Both come from small trials, and neither makes it a cure-all against aging.
For screens, the trials measured the focusing ability of the ciliary body (the ring of muscle that focuses the eye) and how tired people felt, and the proposed mechanism is blood flow and oxidative damage there. It is not a treatment for eyesight, nor for macular degeneration (that is the territory of lutein, zeaxanthin and the AREDS2 trial). For skin, it adds to sun protection and does not replace sunscreen. Claims about the heart, fertility, exercise and the brain so far rest on changes in markers or on single small trials, and still lack real clinical endpoints.
For screens, the trials measured the focusing ability of the ciliary body (the ring of muscle that focuses the eye) and how tired people felt, and the proposed mechanism is blood flow and oxidative damage there. It is not a treatment for eyesight, nor for macular degeneration (that is the territory of lutein, zeaxanthin and the AREDS2 trial). For skin, it adds to sun protection and does not replace sunscreen. Claims about the heart, fertility, exercise and the brain so far rest on changes in markers or on single small trials, and still lack real clinical endpoints.
Evidence · What the screen-fatigue trial measured
Nagaki 2002 studied video display terminal (VDT) workers, not people with macular degeneration. They took 6 mg a day for 4 weeks, and the trial measured accommodation recovery time (how fast focusing recovers), critical flicker fusion (CFF, the rate at which a flickering light starts to look steady) and pattern visual evoked potential (pattern VEP, the electrical signal in the brain's visual area when looking at a checkerboard). Faster focusing recovery and somewhat less subjective fatigue do not mean eyesight has been cured, and they have nothing to do with age-related macular degeneration (AMD). The macular-degeneration line belongs to lutein, zeaxanthin and the AREDS2 formula, not to astaxanthin.Later, Iwasaki 2006 and some follow-up trials again saw better subjective fatigue scores in people who spend long hours at screens; the proposed mechanism is still blood flow and oxidative damage in the ciliary body, not repaired light-sensing cells. Writing it up as a treatment for eye disease puts an aid for tired eyes in the place of an eye drug.
Evidence · The skin study was really two
Tominaga 2012 was really two studies; do not read it as one oral-only randomized trial that ran 8 weeks. The open-label one, with no control group, enrolled 30 women who took 6 mg by mouth plus a topical product for 8 weeks, and their wrinkles, skin moisture and elasticity improved. The other was a double-blind, placebo-controlled randomized trial: 36 men took 6 mg by mouth only, for 6 weeks, and their crow's-feet wrinkles and elasticity improved. The 8-week group also used the topical product, so it cannot count as evidence that the oral capsule won on its own.The proposed mechanism is that it builds up in the dermis and reduces oxidative damage caused by ultraviolet light. The key point stays the same: it adds to sun protection, and it does not replace sunscreen.
Evidence · Heart, fertility, sport and brain
On the heart: in small trials, 12 mg a day lowered oxidized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL, bad-cholesterol particles that have been oxidized) somewhat, but no randomized trial has yet looked at the real clinical endpoints, heart attack and stroke. A marker that moves is not the same as fewer events.On male fertility there is Comhaire 2005: 30 infertile men all received standard treatment and were randomized to add astaxanthin (16 mg a day) or placebo for 3 months, with only 11 men in the astaxanthin group. In that group, the sperm's straight-line swimming speed increased and partners' pregnancy rates were higher, but the sample was very small, and the authors themselves said a larger trial is needed to confirm it; it is a single trial that has not been widely replicated. Do not write it up as a treatment for infertility.
For recovery from exercise there are a few small trials, 4–8 mg for several weeks, showing a little help with endurance or recovery; the effect is small, and it is not a first-line sports supplement. Brain benefits mostly stop at animal and cell work, with very few human trials and small effects; as a brain supplement its evidence is far weaker than creatine's. For fat burning, weight loss, anti-aging and longer life, there is almost no meaningful support from human endpoints so far.
Chapter 4
How to take it so it absorbs
Astaxanthin is fat-soluble. It has to enter the gut with a meal that contains fat, be wrapped by bile salts into tiny droplets called micelles, then be packed into chylomicrons (fat-carrying particles) and travel through the lymph before it reaches the blood. Swallowed on an empty stomach, most of it passes out unchanged.
It is not a stimulant, so feeling nothing after one dose is normal. Blood levels take a week or two to settle, and tissues need longer still to build up. The trials on eye fatigue used 4–6 mg a day; it is sensitive to light and oxygen, so store it sealed and away from light.
It is not a stimulant, so feeling nothing after one dose is normal. Blood levels take a week or two to settle, and tissues need longer still to build up. The trials on eye fatigue used 4–6 mg a day; it is sensitive to light and oxygen, so store it sealed and away from light.
In practice · Dose, pairing and storage
Dose table by goal (these are the amounts actually used in trials, not manufacturers' suggestions):Eye fatigue: 4–6 mg a day (the Nagaki 2002 protocol)Skin protection against UV, anti-photoaging: 4–12 mg a dayRecovery from exercise: 4–12 mg a dayHeart and brain protection at higher doses: 12–20 mg a day (but the evidence is not enough to recommend it)
The safety margin is wider than the effective dose: up to 40 mg a day for several months has been safe in the studies so far; the US GRAS (generally recognized as safe) determination only goes up to 12 mg a day.
Why it has to be taken with oil. Astaxanthin cannot swim through the gut on its own. It first has to be wrapped by bile salts into a tiny oil droplet (a mixed micelle) before it can even reach the cells of the gut wall; once inside those cells, it still has to be packed into chylomicrons and travel through the lymph vessels to reach the blood. The first step of this assembly line is started by the fat in that meal: without fat, the bile salts have nothing to wrap, and it passes out almost untouched. That is why absorption is much poorer on an empty stomach, and why an ordinary meal with some oil wipes out most of the premium on patented encapsulation.
Add vitamin E: some studies show the two together raise blood levels.Do not take it with a very high-fiber meal: a lot of fiber wraps it into a matrix that is hard to break apart, and absorption falls.Take it at the same time each day: its half-life is about 8–16 hours, and blood levels take 1–2 weeks to reach a steady state.
Why you wait weeks. It does its work not in the blood but in tissues: the ciliary body (the ring of muscle that focuses the eye) and the dermis of the skin. Steady blood levels only mean the goods have reached the door; what you are really waiting for is enough of it slowly building up in those tissues. So the timeline below follows how fast the tissues renew, not how many capsules you have taken:
Eye fatigue: 2–4 weeksSkin improvement: 4–8 weeksExercise and heart markers: 4–12 weeksFeeling nothing after one dose is normal; this is not a stimulant.
Storage · why it is so fragile. The long chain that lets it catch free radicals catches oxygen and ultraviolet light just as well. So a bottle of astaxanthin sitting on a windowsill is being oxidized the whole time: strict storage rules are not packaging talk but a direct result of the molecule's structure.
Sensitive to light and oxidation: it must come in dark glass or an opaque plastic bottle, in softgels that seal it in an oil base.Finish it within 6 months of opening.Refrigeration can extend shelf life, but is not required (a cool, dry, dark place works).If the oil looks dark and cloudy when you open a capsule, or the capsules stick together, part of it has already oxidized, and the milligrams on the label no longer hold.
Pairing with other antioxidants:
It works together with vitamins C and E, but you do not have to take them at the same time: each guards its own place in the body, so they do not need to arrive together.There is no need to buy a special combination formula; plain astaxanthin plus the fruit and vegetables you eat every day is enough.
Chapter 5
Which marketing claims don't hold up
A free-radical scavenging rate that differs by thousands of times in a test tube is not how well it works in your body. Vitamin C works in the watery part of the cell and astaxanthin in the fatty membrane; they are not even in the same system, so there is no ranking them.
Its useful targets are narrow: screen-related eye fatigue, and as an aid to UV protection for skin. Anti-aging, longer life, cure-alls and blue astaxanthin all fall apart on inspection: the 6,000× comes from a test-tube chemistry measurement; the blue products are phycocyanin from spirulina, not astaxanthin; and no trial with human lifespan as its endpoint exists at all.
Its useful targets are narrow: screen-related eye fatigue, and as an aid to UV protection for skin. Anti-aging, longer life, cure-alls and blue astaxanthin all fall apart on inspection: the 6,000× comes from a test-tube chemistry measurement; the blue products are phycocyanin from spirulina, not astaxanthin; and no trial with human lifespan as its endpoint exists at all.
Myth · Where 6,000 times vitamin C comes from
The figure 6,000 times stronger than vitamin C comes from a test-tube chemistry measurement of how fast it clears one particular reactive oxygen species, not from any biological effect in the body. Vitamin C and astaxanthin work in completely different places in the body: one in the watery part, one in the fatty membrane, so they are not even in the same system to compare. 6,000× is a narrow chemical measure and cannot be stretched into 6,000 times the antioxidant effect. Similar claims, that it is 100 times stronger than vitamin E and 40 times stronger than β-carotene, come from the same kind of test-tube measurement.Kim 2018 is a short review of mitochondrial damage under oxidative stress, not a pooling clinical endpoints. It can support what happens in culture dishes and mitochondria; it cannot be stretched to heart attacks, longer life or cure-alls. A mechanism is not a human outcome.
Myth · Blue astaxanthin and patented absorption
Real astaxanthin comes from the red microalga H. pluvialis, and its color runs from orange-red to blood-red. Blue products such as Blue Majik contain phycocyanin from a blue-green alga (spirulina, Arthrospira platensis), not astaxanthin. When you see blue astaxanthin, it is almost always two different things being sold as one. For the blue-latte story, see Spirulina.Some brands claim a patented formula absorbs 4 times better. In practice most of these are an oil base in a softgel, which does absorb better than a hard powder capsule. But as long as you take an ordinary oil-based capsule with food that contains fat, you get most of the absorption, with no need to pay extra for patented encapsulation.
Myth · Can it slow aging or extend life?
There is not a single randomized trial with human lifespan as its endpoint, and such a trial is almost impossible to run, because it would need decades of follow-up. The things with evidence for a longer life are: not smoking, not being overweight, not drinking heavily, regular exercise, enough sleep, keeping up social ties, eating enough fruit and vegetables, and managing cardiovascular risk. The evidence for each of these eight (mostly from large cohort studies, with randomized trials for some) is stronger than for astaxanthin.Antioxidants equal anti-aging is a hypothesis that has been popular for decades. From the 1990s into the early 21st century, several large antioxidant-supplement trials came to nothing: β-carotene in ATBC, vitamin E and selenium in SELECT, high-dose vitamin C, and vitamin E in HOPE, all covered in more detail in Multivitamin. Marketing often turns results from animals or cells into proven in humans, the trap of treating a mechanism as evidence. Used for eye fatigue or UV protection for skin, its target is clear; used as a general anti-aging supplement, it is poor value.
Chapter 6
Is it worth buying?
It is worth considering for people who look at screens for long hours every day and clearly feel eye fatigue, and as an aid for people with a lot of outdoor sun exposure who already use sunscreen. It is not a longevity pill.
For occasional screen tiredness, resting your eyes on something far away is better value. For anti-aging, athletic performance and brain health there are better-supported options. Data in pregnancy and breastfeeding are too thin, so it is prudent to skip it then; if you take an anticoagulant, ask your doctor before using it. This is health education, not a substitute for a doctor's judgment.
For occasional screen tiredness, resting your eyes on something far away is better value. For anti-aging, athletic performance and brain health there are better-supported options. Data in pregnancy and breastfeeding are too thin, so it is prudent to skip it then; if you take an anticoagulant, ask your doctor before using it. This is health education, not a substitute for a doctor's judgment.
In practice · Who might consider it
People who look at screens for 8 hours or more a day and clearly feel eye fatigue: the Nagaki protocol measured focusing ability and fatigue scores, not the treatment of eye disease. In China a month costs about ¥200, and it should be weighed against ongoing eye fatigue, not against an eye doctor's prescription. People over 40 with a lot of outdoor sun, such as golfers, runners and outdoor workers: skin UV protection has support from Tominaga's two studies, but sunscreen stays the main tool, and astaxanthin is only an aid.People who train extremely hard with frequent small muscle injuries (marathon build-ups, competition periods): it is a weak but reasonable recovery aid, not a first-line choice. Men with infertility whose couple is going through assisted reproduction: Comhaire 2005 was a controlled trial that added astaxanthin on top of standard treatment, with a small sample and no other trial behind it; it needs a doctor's agreement and should not be used as treatment on your own. This article does not diagnose and does not prescribe.
Safety · Who can skip it, who should ask first
Healthy young people with occasional screen fatigue: looking into the distance for a moment every 20 minutes is far better value than taking astaxanthin. Ordinary people after anti-aging: there is no randomized trial with lifespan as its endpoint, and the combined benefit of sun protection, not smoking, sleep, exercise, fruit and vegetables outweighs any antioxidant supplement. Recreational athletes after better performance: creatine is far better value than astaxanthin. For the brain: eating fish (for ) and sleep stand on firmer ground.Pregnancy and breastfeeding: the data are limited, so it is prudent to skip it; not because there is evidence of harm, but because there is not enough evidence. Anticoagulants (warfarin, rivaroxaban): high doses may affect blood clotting, so ask a doctor before using it, and do not add it on your own. 5α-reductase inhibitors (such as finasteride): astaxanthin weakly inhibits 5α-reductase, so taking both could add up; for now this is a theoretical concern with weak clinical evidence. Seafood allergy: astaxanthin itself contains no shrimp protein, and the microalgal source is usually safe, but check that the label says H. pluvialis, not krill oil.
Used for the narrow targets of screen fatigue and extra UV protection for skin, it is a useful tool; used as a longevity pill, it is wasted money. This article is health education and does not replace a doctor's judgment about medicines or pregnancy.
References · 5
- Higuera-Ciapara, I., Felix-Valenzuela, L., & Goycoolea, F. M. (2006). Astaxanthin: a review of its chemistry and applications. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 46(2), 185-196. 10.1080/10408690590957188
- Nagaki, Y., Hayasaka, S., Yamada, T., et al. (2002). Effects of astaxanthin on accommodation, critical flicker fusion, and pattern visual evoked potential in visual display terminal workers. Journal of Traditional Medicine, 19(5), 170-173.
- Tominaga, K., Hongo, N., Karato, M., & Yamashita, E. (2012). Cosmetic benefits of astaxanthin on humans subjects. Acta Biochimica Polonica, 59(1), 43-47. 10.18388/abp.2012_2168
- Comhaire, F. H., El Garem, Y., Mahmoud, A., Eertmans, F., & Schoonjans, F. (2005). Combined conventional/antioxidant 'Astaxanthin' treatment for male infertility: a double blind, randomized trial. Asian Journal of Andrology, 7(3), 257-262. 30 infertile men, all also on conventional WHO-guideline treatment, randomized to astaxanthin 16 mg/day or placebo for 3 months; the astaxanthin arm had only 11 men (placebo 19). ROS and inhibin B fell and sperm linear (straight-line) velocity rose with astaxanthin - the abstract reports velocity, not motility. Pregnancy rates 54.5% vs 10.5% total; the authors say a larger trial is needed (abstract, PMID 16110353). 10.1111/j.1745-7262.2005.00047.x
- Kim, S. H., & Kim, H. (2018). Inhibitory effect of astaxanthin on oxidative stress-induced mitochondrial dysfunction — A mini-review. Nutrients, 10(9), 1137. 10.3390/nu10091137